From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Public relations (PR) is the practice of conveying messages
to the public through the media on behalf of a client,
with the intention of changing the public's actions by influencing their
opinions. PR practitioners usually target only certain segments of the public
("audiences"), since similar opinions tend to be shared by a group of people
rather than an entire society. However, by targeting different audiences with
different messages to achieve an overall goal, PR practitioners can achieve
widespread opinion and behavior change.
History
The precursors to public relations can be found in the publicists who
specialized in promoting circuses, theatrical performances, and other public
spectacles. Many PR practitioners have also been recruited from the ranks of
journalism and have used their understanding of the news media to ensure that
their clients receive favorable media coverage.
The First World War also helped
stimulate the development of public relations as a profession. Many of the first
PR professionals, including Ivy Lee, Edward
Bernays, and Carl
Byoir, got their start with the Committee
for Public Information (also known as the Creel Committee), which organized
publicity on behalf of U.S. objectives during World War I. Some historians
regard Ivy Lee as the first real practitioner of public relations, but Edward
Bernays is generally regarded today as the profession's founder.
Ivy Lee, who has been credited with developing the modern news
release (also called a "press release"), espoused a philosophy consistent
with what has sometimes been called the "two-way street" approach to public
relations, in which PR consists of helping clients listen as well as communicate
messages to their publics. In the words of the PRSA, "Public relations helps an
organization and its publics adapt mutually to each other." In practice,
however, Lee often engaged in one-way propagandizing on behalf of
clients despised by the public, including robber baron John D. Rockefeller.
His career ended in scandal, when the U.S. Congress held
hearings to investigate his work on behalf of Nazi Germany in the years immediately
preceding World War II.
Bernays was the profession's first theorist. A nephew of Sigmund
Freud, Bernays drew many of his ideas from Freud's theories about the
irrational, unconscious motives that shape human behavior. Bernays authored
several books, including Crystallizing Public Opinion (1923),
Propaganda (1928), and The Engineering of Consent (1947). Bernays
saw public relations as an "applied social science" that uses insights from
psychology, sociology, and other disciplines to scientifically manage and
manipulate the thinking and behavior of an irrational and "herdlike" public.
"The conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organized habits and opinions
of the masses is an important element in democratic society," he wrote in
Propaganda. "Those who manipulate this unseen mechanism of society
constitute an invisible government which is the true ruling power of our
country."
One of Bernays' early clients was the tobacco industry. In
1929, he orchestrated a legendary publicity stunt aimed at
persuading women to take up cigarette smoking,
which was then considered unfeminine and inappropriate for women with any social
standing. To counter this image, Bernays arranged for New York City debutantes
to march in that year's Easter Day Parade, defiantly smoking cigarettes as a
statement of rebellion against the norms of a male-dominated society.
Photographs of what Bernays dubbed the "Torches of Liberty Brigade" were sent to
newspapers, convincing many women to equate smoking with women's rights. Some
women went so far as to demand membership in all-male smoking clubs, a highly
controversial act at the time.
The Industry Today
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, public relations specialists held approximately 122,000 jobs in
1998, while there were approximately 485,000 advertising, marketing, and public
relations managers working in all industries. Modern public relations uses a
variety of techniques including opinion polling and focus groups to evaluate
public opinion, combined with a variety of high-tech techniques for distributing
information on behalf of their clients, including satellite feeds, the Internet,
broadcast faxes, and database-driven phone banks to recruit supporters for a
client's cause.
The skills and techniques used to manage the public have also expanded over
the years. According to the PRSA, "Examples of the knowledge that may be
required in the professional practice of public relations include communication
arts, psychology, social psychology, sociology, political science, economics,
and the principles of management and ethics. Technical knowledge and skills are
required for opinion research, public issues analysis, media relations, direct
mail, institutional advertising, publications, film/video productions, special
events, speeches, and presentations."
Although public relations professionals are stereotypically seen as coporate
servants, the reality is that almost any organization that has a stake in how it
is portrayed in the media employs at least one PR manager. Large enough
organizations may even have dedicated communications departments. Government
agencies, trade associations, and other nonprofit organizations commonly carry
out PR activities.
A number of specialties exist within the field of public relations,
including:
Also, many large agencies separate their work into area-specific "practices,"
while smaller agencies specialize in only one or a few:
- foodservice PR
- healthcare PR
- technology PR
- public affairs PR
...and others, depending on the agency.
Related Fields
There are disciplines with public relations functions that, though closely
related to PR, have differing and unique characters and goals.
Marketing and Advertising
While public relations generally tries to influence the public's perceptions
and behavior in a variety of ways and arenas, marketing concentrates on
influencing the public to buy goods and services. Advertising is an important
tool for marketers, though not the only one. As in other areas of PR, publicity
events are also used, and, if used correctly, generate enough "buzz" and free
media coverage that would be impossible or impractical to replicate with a
traditional advertisement.
Propaganda
Propaganda is certainly an
area of public relations, albeit a far less nuanced one. PR most often tries to
convince the public of something using a wide array of intellectual and
emotional tools, while propaganda usually relies on visceral emotions like love,
fear, loyalty, prejudice, and others, to control a population. If the population
can be convinced (as is often the case), so much the better for the
propagandist, but achieving control is the primary objective of propaganda, with
or without the audience's "hearts and minds."
A few influential propaganda pieces include the film "Triumph des Willens"
("Triumph of the Will"), made by Nazi-era filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl. It is
widely considered the best propaganda film ever made, both for its effect on the
German people and for its artistry. (Another influential piece of Nazi
propaganda was the Protocols of
the Elders of Zion, a fabricated book "discovered" by the Nazis that they
claimed detailed a Jewish plot to take over the
world. The "Protocols" were a major factor in whipping up anti-Semitic fervor in
Germany.)
On the American side of World War II were the Four
Freedoms by Norman Rockwell, a
series of four paintings that were meant to motivate Americans to fight to
preserve four basic freedoms outlined in a speech by President
Roosevelt:freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and
freedom from fear. The "Why We Fight" films, produced by Frank Capra, were also
influential.
In the present day, one controversy over
the Michael Moore film Fahrenheit 9/11 is
whether it is a documentary or propaganda. The film's fact-based format leads
some to label it a documentary, but its highly emotional approach echoes the
fundamental methods of propaganda.
Audiences and Stakeholders
The most fundamental rule in public communications is to know who one's
audience is, and to tailor every message to appeal to that audience.
An "audience" can be a general, nationwide or worldwide audience, but it is
more often a segment of a population. Marketers often refer to economy-driven
"demographics," such as
"white males 18-49," but in public relations an audience is more fluid, being
whoever the client wants to reach. For example, recent political audiences
include "soccer moms" and "NASCAR dads."
In addition to audiences, there are usually stakeholders, literally
people who have a "stake" in a given issue. All audiences are stakeholders (or
presumptive stakeholders), but not all stakeholders are audiences. For example,
a charity commissions a PR agency to create an advertising campaign to raise
money to find a cure for a disease. The charity and the people with the disease
are stakeholders, but the audience is anyone who likely to donate money.
Sometimes the interests of differing audiences and stakeholders common to a
PR effort necessitate the creation of several distinct but still complementary
messages. This is not always easy to do, and sometimes – especially in politics
– a spokesperson or client says something to one audience that angers another
audience or group of stakeholders.
Methods, Tools and Tactics
General
The Press Conference
(Also called a "news conference")
A press conference consists of someone speaking to the media at a
predetermined time and place. Press conferences usually take place in a public
or quasi-public place.
Press conferences provide an excellent opportunity for speakers to control
information and who gets it; depending on the circumstances, speakers may
hand-pick the journalists they invite to the conference instead of making
themselves available to any journalist who wishes to attend.
It is also assumed that the speaker will answer journalists' questions at a
press conference, although they are of course not obligated to. However, someone
who holds several press conferences on a topic (especially a scandal) will be
asked questions by the press, regardless of whether they indicate they will
entertain them, and the more conferences the person holds, the more aggressive
the questioning may become. Therefore, it is in a speaker's interest to answer
journalists' questions at a press conference to avoid appearing as if they have
something to hide.
But questions from reporters – especially hostile reporters – detracts from
the control a speaker has over the information they give out. For even more
control, but less interactivity, a person may choose to issue a press
release.
The Press Release
(Also called a "news release")
A press release is simply a
written statement distributed to the media. It is a fundamental tool of PR
work.
The typical press release announces that the statement is "FOR IMMEDIATE
RELEASE" across the top, and lists the issuing organization's media contacts
directly below. The media contacts are the people that the release's issuer
wants to make available to the media; for example, a press release about new
scientific study will typically list the study's lead scientist as its media
contact.
The text of the press release is usually (but not always) written as a news
story, with an eye-catching headline and an article written in standard
journalistic inverted pyramid style.
This style is effective for reaching harried, and often skeptical journalists
who rarely read entire releases. It also makes it easy for journalists to lift
entire passages from a release and insert them into their own article. While
this practice is frowned upon in newsrooms, journalism is a deadline-driven
industry, and it is not uncommon for reporters to occasionally copy or modify a
line or two from a press release. PR practitioners, on the other hand, design
releases to encourage as much "lifting" as possible, so in essence, the less
professional a journalist is, the more successful the release is judged to
be.
The only time that journalists may copy from a press release in good
conscience is if the release provides a direct quote, as in:Senator Smith
said, "This is the most fiscally irresponsible bill that the Congress has passed
since the Buy Everyone A Mercedes Act." In this case, a journalist may copy
the quote verbatim into his or her story, although most reporters prefer to try
soliciting an individual quote from the speaker before filing their story.
The bottom of each release is usually marked with ### or
-30- to signify the end of the text.
Press releases are usually sent by fax to media outlets the issuer wishes to
reach, but email is sometimes used too.
A constantly updated web site with current press releases is here (http://releases.usnewswire.com).
PRESS RELEASES ARE an ideal way for organizations to control the information
they give to the media. Very often the information in a press release finds its
way verbatim, or minimally altered, to print and broadcast reports. If a media
outlet reports that "John Doe said in a statement today that...", the
"statement" was almost always a press release.
However, because press releases reflect their issuer's preferred
interpretation or packaging of a story, journalists are often skeptical of their
contents. Of course, the level of skepticism, if any, depends on what the story
is and who's telling it. Newsrooms receive so many press releases that, unless
it is a story that the media are already paying attention to, a press release
alone isn't always enough to catch a journalist's attention.
The Publicity Event
(Also called a publicity "stunt")
"The Circuit"
The "circuit" generally refers to the "talk show circuit." A PR spokesperson
(or his/her client) "does the circuit" by being interviewed on television and
radio talk shows with audiences that the client wishes to reach.
Books and Other Writings
Press Contacts, or 'The Rolodex'
After a PR practitioner has been working in the field for a while, he or she
accumulates a list of contacts in the media and elsewhere in the public affairs
sphere. This "Rolodex" becomes a prized asset,
and job announcements sometimes even ask for candidates with an existing
Rolodex, especially those in the media
relations area of PR.
Politics and Civil Society
Defining Your Opponent
Political campaigns are peak times for defining one's opponents, though the
process occurs continually.
In the most recent U.S. presidential campaign, George W. Bush defined John Kerry
as a "flip-flopper," among other characterizations.
Similarly, George H.W. Bush
characterized Michael Dukakis as weak
on crime (the Willie Horton ad) and as
hopelessly liberal ("a card-carrying member of the ACLU").
In 1996, President Bill Clinton seized upon
opponent Bob
Dole's promise to take America back to a simpler time, promising in contrast
to "build a bridge to the 21st century." This painted Dole as a person who was
somehow opposed to progress.
But organizations and other groups of people can be defined just as easily as
candidates.
In the debate over abortion, pro-abortion rights
groups defined their opponents by defining themselves instead:"pro-choice."
Anti-abortion rights groups responded in kind, branding themselves "pro-life."
Extrapolating their respective rhetorics, pro-choice groups refer to their
opponents as "anti-choice," and pro-life groups refer to their
opponents as "pro-abortion."
More recently, opponents of same-sex marriage in
the U.S. have declared that their opponents are not the gay couples suing for
the right to marry in various state courts, but rather the judges who rule in
their favor. They are now called "activist judges," implying that they impose
their personal beliefs instead of objectively interpreting the law. This
sidesteps the thorny issue of making millions of gay people an "enemy," and
instead focuses attention on the much smaller judiciary, who all Americans can
ostensibly agree should be prevented from being "activists" on the bench.
Managing Language
If a politician or organization can use an apt phrase in relation to an
issue, such as in interviews or news releases, the news media will often repeat
it verbatim, thus furthering the message.
"New
Deal" became a description of President Franklin
Roosevelt's anti-Depression economic
plans, and "states' rights/state sovereignty" became near-code words for anti-civil
rights legislation.
Recent examples come almost solely from Republican
politicians:"death tax" for estate tax, "racial preferences" for affirmative
action, "faith-based" instead of religious, and several others.
Entertainment and Celebrity
Playing Up One's Weaknesses
A famous saying goes "Any publicity is good publicity," and celebrities tend
to be fans of this dictum. If a celebrity says or does something embarrassing,
he or she will often turn it into a strength and make it part of his or her
"image." Of course, this tactic is used just as much with favorable situations
as much as with unfavorable ones.
A current example involves the entertainer Jessica Simpson, who
gained nationwide prominence when she wondered aloud on a reality
show if "Chicken of the Sea"-brand tuna fish was actually chicken or tuna,
garnering her a reputation for being slow-witted. But by the summer of 2004, she
was being paid to endorse a brand of breath mints called "Liquid Ice." In the
product's television commercial, Simpson replicates her earlier confusion by
debating whether the mint is really liquid or ice. So although she was
previously ridiculed, she (and her advisors) turned her nationwide embarrassment
into a lucrative endorsement deal.
Ducking the Media
Branching Out
As Oscar Wilde is supposed to
have said, the only thing worse than being talked about is not to be talked
about at all. Many celebrities seem to take this truism to heart, because when
their popularity (and income) wane, they take on new projects that attract media
attention. Considering that a celebrity's celebrity is a brand unto itself, many
celebrities are under constant pressure to "reinvent" themselves as a
prophylactic against obscurity.
A current trend among American celebrities is the transformation of
musicians, comedians, and almost every other sort of performer into children's
book authors. Madonna, Jay Leno, Billy
Crystal, and several other celebrities have recently written children's
books, accompanied by much media coverage.
A more traditional way of branching out is the celebrity restaurant. This is
especially common among professional athletes, whose time in the spotlight is
often limited by the physical demands of their jobs. Basketball player Michael Jordan opened a
restaurant in Chicago, Illinois, and
singer Britney Spears opened an
ill-fated eatery in New York which closed a few
months later.
Male celebrities like Tim Robbins, Sean Penn
and Charlton Heston seem to
gravitate toward politics, although some female
celebrities, such as Susan Sarandon and Barbra Streisand, also
become strong political voices.
Younger female celebrities on the other hand are often drawn into the fashion world.
Hotel heiress Paris Hilton recently
announced that she was starting her own line of jewelry, and Jennifer Lopez has
started a line of clothing. And fading star Elizabeth Taylor
launched a fragrance called "White
Diamonds" several years ago, bringing renewed interest from the media.
Ethical and Social Issues
Many of the techniques used by PR firms are drawn from the institutions and
practices of democracy itself. Persuasion, advocacy, and education are
instruments through which individuals and organizations are entitled to express
themselves in a free society, and many public relations practitioners are
engaged in practices that are widely considered as beneficial, such as
publicizing scientific research, promoting charities, raising awareness of
public health concerns and other issues in civil society.
However, a number of strong criticisms of public relations have been made
over the years.
One of the most controversial practices in public relations is the use of front
groups -- organizations that purport to serve a public cause while actually
serving the interests of a client whose sponsorship may be obscured or
concealed. The creation of front groups is an example of what PR practitioners
sometimes term the third
party technique -- the art of "putting your words in someone else's mouth."
PR Watch, a
nonprofit organization that monitors deceptive PR activities, has published
numerous examples of this technique in practice.
See also
External links
About the Industry
- The Museum of Public Relations (http://www.prmuseum.com/) offers a look at
some of the industry's historical figures
- PR Week (http://www.prweek.com/), trade publication
- O'Dwyer's PR Daily (http://www.odwyerpr.com/), another trade
publication, occasionally featuring critical essays and investigative
journalism about the industry
- About
Public Relations (http://www.prsa.org/_Resources/Profession/index.asp?ident=prof1),
by the Public Relations Society of America
Major Public Relations Agencies
Professional Organizations
Research Organizations
Watchdogs and Critics
- Disinfopedia.org (http://www.disinfopedia.org) Provides
background on PR agencies and practitioners. Focuses mostly on conservative
and right-wing PR
- PR Watch (http://www.prwatch.org/), critiques
deceptive PR campaigns
(http://www.corporatewatch.org.uk/profiles/pr_industry/pr1.htm/),
a critical overview of the public relations and lobbying industry
Education
Books
