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A sport consists of a normal physical activity or skill
carried out under a publicly agreed set of rules, and with a recreational
purpose:for competition, for self-enjoyment, to attain excellence, for the
development of skill, or some combination of these. The difference of purpose is
what characterises sport, combined with the notion of individual (or team) skill
or prowess.
Therefore swimming competitively in front of thousands in an indoor arena is
considered a sport, whereas swimming in a pool or in the sea by oneself is seen
simply as a recreation.
There are many kinds of sports, and they take up a substantial proportion of
people's time, money and interest, if not as participants then as
spectators.
Definition of "Sport"
Sport is a major area of human interest and activity. A large part of our
leisure, and newspaper and TV time is given over to it.
A pragmatic approach to defining "sport" is to look at the common usage of
the term.
A sport can be operationally defined as an activity characteristically
involving :
-
- The exercise of a useful physical skill recreationally, i.e. for a
purpose other than its practical application in daily life.
-
- Conforming to a set of rules for the activity while aiming to attain
excellence.
The excellence referred to above may be measured against previous benchmarks,
time measurements, performance of the other team or participants, world records,
etc..
Examples of skills which have become sports:
- Gladiators in Rome fought and killed for the delectation of the audience,
rather than to protect the Empire:
- Yachting is the travel across water for enjoyment or competition rather
than e.g. for transport or commerce:
- Running is done on a course for a fixed length of time or distance, rather
than simply to catch a bus.
Physical sports use characteristics such as strength, stamina, speed,
dexterity and other skills, other sports use more cerebral skills (see Mind
sport), such as strategic thinking in chess. This article, however, will
concentrate on physical aspects of sport.
The line between sports, Games, Exercise and Play is certainly not clear; games
are often redefined as sports when they involve particularly skilled
participants, which gives them appeal to non-participants. This is especially
true in the modern age, which gives much weight to the spectator aspect of
sports. Similarly, play is usually understood as less purposeful activity, but
can become more like a game or sport as it conforms more to external rules or
patterns of behaviour. Exercise is action to develop skill or ability, and may
be a forerunner of both sport and games.
History of sport
The development of sport throughout history can teach us a great deal about
social changes, and about the nature of sport itself.
Sport seems to involve basic human skills being developed and exercised for
their own sake, in parallel with being exercised for their usefulness. This
suggests that sport is probably as old as the existence of people as purposive
beings, and that it was a useful way of people learning and developing,
increasing their mastery of nature and the environment.
Of course, as we go further back in history the dwindling evidence makes this
more difficult to support.
Pre-history
There are many modern discoveries in France, Africa and Australia of cave art
(see e.g. Lascaux) from prehistory which
provide evidence of ritual ceremonial behaviour. Some of these sources date from
over 30 000 years ago, as established by carbon dating.
Stone-age drawings were discovered in the Libyan desert depicting among other
activities, swimming and archery..[1]
(http://www.fjexpeditions.com/)
The art itself is an example of interest in skills unrelated to the
functional tasks of staying alive, and is evidence of there being leisure time
available. It depicts other non-functional activities such as ritual etc..
Therefore, although there is scant direct evidence of sport from these
sources, it is reasonable to extrapolate that there was some activity at these
times resembling sport.
It is reasonable to assume from these and other historical sources that sport
has origins which lie in the beginnings of mankind itself.
Ancient China
There are artifacts and structures which suggest that Chinese people engaged
in activities which meet our definition of sport as early as 4 000 years BC. The
origin and development of China's sports activities seem to have been closely
related to the production, work, war and entertainment of the time.
Gymnastics appears to have been a popular sport in China's past. It certainly
remains so today, as the skill of Chinese acrobats is internationally
recognised.
China has a Beijing Museum which is dedicated to the subject of Chinese sport
and its history. See Chinese
Sports Museum (http://chineseculture.about.com/library/weekly/aa032301a.htm)
Ancient Persia
Ancient Persian sports such as the
traditional Iranian martial art of Zurkhane
had a close connection to the warfare skills. The movements in the traditional
Iranian sport at Zurkhane all resemble the fighting skills of the ancient times.
Also wresteling
has a deep root in the Persian culture. Among other sports which originate in Persia are Polo and Jousting.
Ancient Greece.
A wide range of sports were already established at the time of the Ancient
Greece. Wrestling, running, boxing, javelin, discus throwing, and chariot racing
were prevalent. This suggests that the military culture of Greece was an
influence on the development of its sports and vice versa.
The Olympic Games were held every four years in Ancient Greece, at a small
village in Pelopponisos called Olympia. The games were held not simply as a
sporting event, but as a celebration of individual excellence, cultural and
artistic variety, and a showplace for architectural and sculptural innovation.
It was also a time of gratitude and respect for the Gods of the Greek
religion.
Because the games were sacred, Greeks considered hostilities at the time of
the games an insult to the Olympic Movement. During the games therefore a
ceasefire occurred in all battlefields, if there was an ongoing war somewhere in
Greece. Also, public executions were suspended. This was called the Olympic
Truce, and it allowed people to congregate peacefully and to compete in a
civilised and respectful atmosphere.
Modern European and global developments
Sport has been increasingly organised and regulated from the time of the
Ancient Olympics up to the present century. Activities necessary for food and
survival became regulated activities done for pleasure or competition on an
increasing scale, e.g. hunting, fishing, horticulture. The Industrial Revolution
and mass production brought increased leisure which allowed increases in
spectator sports, less elitism in sports, and greater accessibility.
These trends continued with the advent of mass media and global
communication. Professionalism became prevalent, further adding to the increase
in sport's popularity. This perhaps contrasts with the noble Grecian ideal,
where victory at the Games was much sought after, and rewarded with an olive
branch. (Perhaps not only with an olive branch, some writers record.)
Perhaps in a reaction to the demands of contemporary life, there have been
developments in sport which are best described as post-modern:Extreme ironing being a
notable example. There is also a move towards adventure sports as a form of
escapism from the routines of life, examples being white water rafting, Canyoning, BASE
jumping, and the more genteel orienteering.
A classification of sports
Main article: List of sports
One system for classifying sports is as follows, based more on the sport's
aim than on the actual mechanics. The examples given are intended to be
illustrative, rather than comprehensive
Racing
Opponent
- Combat (Judo,
karate, Boxing, Fencing...)
- Court (Tennis, Badminton, Volleyball, Squash...)
- Team (Football, Rugby, Ice
hockey, Field hockey, Baseball, Softball...)
Achievement
A combination of all categories
- (Athletics) (Human-powered,
Team, Strength, Paintball)
Sportsmanship
It is interesting that the motivation for sport is often an elusive element.
For example, beginners in sailing are often told that dinghy racing is a good
means to sharpen the learner's sailing skills. However, it often emerges that
skills are honed to increase racing performance and achievements in competition,
rather than the converse. 'Sportsmanship' expresses an aspiration or ethos that
the activity will be enjoyed for its own sake, but often the pressures of
competition, individual achievement, or introduction of technology can seem to
work against enjoyment by participants.
People responsible for leisure activities often seek recognition and
respectability as sports by joining sports federations such as the IOC, or
by forming their own regulatory body. In this way sports evolve from leisure
activity to more formal sports:relatively recent newcomers are BMX cycling,
snowboarding, wrestling, etc. Some of these activities have been popular but
uncodified pursuits in various forms for different lengths of time. Indeed, the
formal regulation of sport is a relatively modern and increasing
development.
Sportsman ship, within any given game, is how each competitor acts before,
during, and after the competition. Not only is it important to have good
sportsmanship if one wins, but also if one loses.
Violence in sports
involves crossing the line between fair competition and intentional aggressive
violence. Athletes, coaches, fans, and parents sometimes unleash violent
behaviour on people or property, in misguided shows of loyalty, dominance,
anger, or celebration.
Professionalism and the regulation of sport
The entertainment aspect of sport, together with the spread of mass media and
increased leisure time, has led to Professionalism in
sport. This has resulted in some conflict, where the Paycheck can be seen as more
important than recreational aspects:or where the sport is changed simply to
make it more profitable and popular therefore losing some of the traditions
valued by some.
The successful execution of a sport requires the consensus agreement of the
participants on a set of rules for fair competition. This has led to the control
of each sport through a Regulatory body to
define what methods of competition are acceptable and what are considered Cheating.
Sport and politics
There have been many dilemmas for sports where a difficult political context
is in place.
When apartheid was the official
policy in South Africa, many sportspeople adopted the conscientious approach
that they should not appear in competitive sports there. Some feel this was an
effective contribution to the eventual demolition of the policy of apartheid,
others feel that it may have prolonged and reinforced its worst effects.
The 1936 Summer
Olympics held in Berlin was an illustration, perhaps best recognised in
retrospect, where an ideology was developing which used the event to strengthen
its spread through propaganda.
In the history of Ireland, Gaelic sports were clearly carried on with
nationalistic overtones:for example, in the mid 20th century a person could
have been banned from playing professional Gaelic football, hurley, or other
sport if the person played soccer, or other game which was seen to be of British
origin.
Nationalism in general is
often evident in the pursuit of sport, or in its reporting:people compete in
national teams, or commentators and audiences can adopt a partisan view. These
trends are seen by some as contrary to the fundamental ethos of sport being
carried on for its own sake, for the enjoyment of its participants.
See also:List of countries by national
sport
Art and sport
Sport has many affinities with art. Ice skating and Tai chi for
example are sports which come close to artistic spectacles in themselves:to
watch these activities comes close to the experience of spectating at a ballet.
Similarly, there are other activities which have elements of sport and art in
their execution, such as Performance art, artistic gymnastics,
Bodybuilding etcetera.
The fact that art is so close to sport in some situations is probably related
to the nature of sport. The definition of "sport" above put forward the idea of
an activity pursued not just for the usual purposes, e.g. running not simply to
get places, but running for its own sake, running as well as we can.
This is similar to a common view of aesthetic value, which is seen as
something over and above the strictly functional value coming from an object's
normal use. So an aesthetically pleasing car is one which doesn't just get from
A to B, but which impresses us with its grace, poise and charisma.
In the same way, a sporting performance such as jumping doesn't just impress
us as being an effective way to avoid obstacles or to get across streams. It
impresses us because of the ability, skill and style which is shown.
Art and sport were probably more clearly linked at the time of Ancient
Greece, when gymnastics and callesthenics invoked admiration and aesthetic
appreciation for the physical build, prowess and 'arete' displayed by
participants. The modern term 'art' as skill, is related to this ancient Greek
term 'arete'. The closeness of art and sport in these times was revealed by the
nature of the Olympic Games which, as we
have seen, were celebrations of both sporting and artistic achievements, poetry,
sculpture and architecture.
Recommended Reading
- The Meaning of Sports by Michael Mandelbaum (PublicAffairs, ISBN:
1-58648-252-1).
Related topics
The following entries go into further detail into issues important to
sport:
External links
Please note: There are no copyright restrictions for content retrived from http://en.wikipedia.org. Please visit them for details.
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